Isotopes

Naturally-occurring palladium is composed of six isotopes. The most stable radioisotopes are ¹⁰⁷Pd with a half-life of 6.5 million years, ¹⁰³Pd with a half-life of 17 days, and ¹⁰⁰Pd with a half-life of 3.63 days. Eighteen other radioisotopes have been characterized with atomic weights ranging from 92.936 u (⁹³Pd) to 119.924 u (¹²⁰Pd). Most of these have half-lives that are less than a half-hour, except ¹⁰¹Pd (half-life: 8.47 hours), ¹⁰⁹Pd (half-life: 13.7 hours), and ¹¹²Pd (half-life: 21 hours).

The primary decay mode before the most abundant stable isotope, ¹⁰⁶Pd, is electron capture and the primary mode after is beta decay. The primary decay product before ¹⁰⁶Pd is rhodium and the primary product after is silver.

Radiogenic ¹⁰⁷Ag is a decay product of ¹⁰⁷Pd and was first discovered in the Santa Clara, California meteorite of 1978.^[13] The discoverers suggest that the coalescence and differentiation of iron-cored small planets may have occurred 10 million years after a nucleosynthetic event. ¹⁰⁷Pd versus Ag correlations observed in bodies, which have clearly been melted since accretion of the solar system, must reflect the presence of short-lived nuclides in the early solar system

Characteristics

Palladium belongs to group 10 in the periodic table:

Z	Element	No. of electrons/shell
28	nickel	2, 8, 16, 2
46	palladium	2, 8, 18, 18
78	platinum	2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1
110	darmstadtium	2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 1

but has a very atypical configuration in its outermost electron shells compared to the rest of the members of group 10, if not to all elements. (See also niobium (41), ruthenium (44), and rhodium (45).)

Palladium is a soft silver-white metal that resembles platinum. It is the least dense and has the lowest melting point of the platinum group metals. It is soft and ductile when annealed and greatly increases its strength and hardness when it is cold-worked. Palladium dissolves slowly in sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acid.^[5] This metal also does not react with oxygen at normal temperatures (and thus does not tarnish in air). Palladium heated to 800°C will produce a layer of palladium(II) oxide (PdO). It lightly tarnishes in moist atmosphere containing sulfur.

The metal has the uncommon ability to absorb up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen at room temperatures. It is thought that this possibly forms palladium hydride (PdH₂) but it is not yet clear if this is a true chemical compound.^[5] When palladium has absorbed large amounts of hydrogen, it will expand slightly in size.^[12]

Common oxidation states of palladium are 0,+1, +2 and +4. Although originally +3 was thought of as one of the fundamental oxidation states of palladium, there is no evidence for palladium occurring in the +3 oxidation state; this has been investigated via X-ray diffraction for a number of compounds, indicating a dimer of palladium(II) and palladium(IV) instead. Recently, compounds with an oxidation state of +6 were synthesised.

Occurrence

In 2005, Russia was the top producer of palladium, with at least 50% world share, followed by South Africa, Canada and the U.S., reports the British Geological Survey.

Palladium may be found as a free metal alloyed with gold and other platinum group metals in placer deposits of the Ural Mountains, Australia, Ethiopia, South and North America. It is commercially produced from nickel-copper deposits found in South Africa, Ontario, and Siberia; It takes processing of many metric tons of ore to extract just one troy ounce of palladium. However, the mine production could still be profitable, depending on current metal prices, as other metals are produced together: nickel, copper, platinum and rhodium.

The world's largest single producer of palladium is MMC Norilsk Nickel produced from the Norilsk–Talnakh nickel deposits. The Merensky Reef of the Bushveld Igneous Complex of South Africa contains significant palladium in addition to other platinum group elements. The Stillwater igneous complex of Montana and the Roby zone orebody of the Lac des Îles igneous complex of Ontario also contain mineable palladium.

Palladium is also produced in nuclear fission reactors and can be extracted from spent nuclear fuel, see Synthesis of noble metals, though the quantity produced is insignificant.

History

Palladium was discovered by William Hyde Wollaston in 1803.^[3][4] This element was named by Wollaston in 1804 after the asteroid Pallas, which had been discovered two years earlier.^[5] Wollaston found palladium in crude platinum ore from South America by dissolving the ore in aqua regia, neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide, and precipitating platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate with ammonium chloride. He added mercuric cyanide to form the compound palladium cyanide, which was heated to extract palladium metal.

Palladium chloride was at one time prescribed as a tuberculosis treatment at the rate of 0.065g per day (approximately one milligram per kilogram of body weight). This treatment did have many negative side-effects, and was later replaced by more effective drugs.^[6]

Palladium's affinity for hydrogen led it to play an essential role in the Fleischmann-Pons experiment in 1989, also known as cold fusion.

In the run up to 2000, Russian supply of palladium to the global market was repeatedly delayed and disrupted^[7] because the export quota was not granted on time, for political reasons. The ensuing market panic drove the palladium price to an all-time high of $1100 per ounce in January 2001.^[8] Around this time, the Ford Motor Company, fearing auto vehicle production disruption due to a possible palladium shortage, stockpiled large amounts of the metal purchased near the price high. When prices fell in early 2001, Ford lost nearly US$1 billion.^[9] World demand for palladium increased from 100 tons in 1990 to nearly 300 tons in 2000. The global production of palladium from mines was 222 metric tons in 2006 according to USGS data.^[10] Most palladium is used for catalytic converters in the automobile industry

Palladium

Palladium (pronounced /pəˈleɪdiəm/) is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Pd and an atomic number of 46. Palladium is a rare and lustrous silvery-white metal that was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston, who named it after the asteroid Pallas, which in turn, was named after the epithet of the Greek goddess Athena, acquired by her when she slew Pallas.

Palladium, along with platinum, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium form a group of elements referred to as the platinum group metals (PGMs). Platinum group metals share similar chemical properties, but palladium has the lowest melting point and is the least dense of these precious metals.^[1]

The unique properties of palladium and other platinum group metals account for their widespread use. One in four goods manufactured today either contain platinum group metals or had platinum group metals play a key role during their manufacturing process^[2]. Over half of the supply of palladium and its sister metal platinum goes into catalytic converters, which convert up to 90% of harmful gases from auto exhaust (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide) into less harmful substances (nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor). Palladium’s precious metal qualities and appearance generate significant consumption in the luxury jewelry market. Palladium is found in many electronics including computers, mobile phones, multi-layer ceramic capacitors, component plating, low voltage electrical contacts, and SED/OLED/LCD televisions. Palladium is also used in dentistry, medicine, hydrogen purification, chemical applications, and groundwater treatment. Palladium plays a key role in the technology used for fuel cells, which combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, heat and water.

Anthony Dimond

Anthony Joseph Dimond (November 30, 1881 – May 28, 1953) was an American Democratic Party politician who was the Alaska Territory Delegate in the United States House of Representatives for many years (1933-1945). Dimond was also an early champion of Alaska statehood.

Dimond was born in New York and attended Catholic schools, taught school in Montgomery County, New York (1900-1903) and was a prospector/miner in Alaska (1904-1912) before studying law and beginning practice in Valdez (1913).

Dimond's political experience includes: US Commissioner in Chisana, Alaska (1913-1914); Special Assistant US Attorney for the 3rd Judicial Division of Alaska in Valdez (1917); Mayor of Valdez (1920-1922, 1925-1932); Alaska Territorial Senate (1923–1926, 1929–1932); and District Judge for the 3rd Division of Alaska (1945–1953). He also served as a Delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1936 and 1940. He died on May 28, 1953 in Anchorage.

A Roman Catholic, Dimond was a member of organizations such as the Elks, Moose and Eagles. His secretary, Bob Bartlett, eventually became a United States Senator from Alaska.

Today, November 30 is celebrated by the State of Alaska as "Anthony Dimond Day." In Anchorage, A. J. Dimond High School and Dimond Blvd, a major thoroughfare, are named after him.

In 1940, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt was considering making Alaska an international Jewish homeland, Dimond was the main force behind defeating the effort. Some Alaskan papers have attributed this to anti-Semitism on the part of Dimond and others, although the charge was challenged by historians who claimed that Dimond was mostly concerned about the finances

History

Elmhurst began in 1865, when a railroad station was constructed by the San Francisco and Oakland Railroad.^[1] Originally named "Jones", the station was renamed "Elmhurst" in 1869.^[1] The town's first post office was established in 1892.^[1] The town of Elmhurst was primarily an agricultural community. After the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake, East Bay communities grew in population, and the City of Oakland annexed several surrounding communities in 1909, including Elmhurst. The neighborhood grew into a manufacturing center in the years that followed, with automobile manufacturing playing a significant role.^[2] Chevrolet opened an auto assembly plant in Elmhurst in 1915, which shut down in the 1950s.

Elmhurst was the site of one of the large carbarns for the Key System's streetcars, the Elmhurst Carhouse.

Although it was historically a white working-class neighborhood, it became predominantly African American after World War II, and today, Latinos now form about half of Elmhurst's population.

Dimond District, Oakland, California

The Dimond District is a neighborhood centered on the intersection of MacArthur Boulevard and Fruitvale Avenue in East Oakland, Oakland, California, in the United States. It is located about two miles east of Lake Merritt, north of the Fruitvale District, and west of the Laurel District. Dimond's ZIP code is 94602. It is a multicultural neighborhood where the hills meet the flatlands and is a unique melting pot of cultures and social classes. In the district is also a park called 'Dimond Park'.

It is named after Hugh Dimond, who came to California during the Gold Rush and purchased the land comprising the district in 1867. In 1897 he built a cottage that used the adobe bricks from the Peralta family's 1827 home. The bricks were used again to build the Boy Scout hut that is still standing in Dimond Park.

The district is home to several historic buildings, including the Altenheim, originally a retirement home for German Americans. The current structure was built in 1909 according to a design by San Francisco architect Oscar Haupt, after the original structure was destroyed by fire.

The Dimond Business District is situated among several of Oakland's neighborhoods including Oakmore, Glenview, and Lincoln Heights. National (e.g. Safeway, Longs Drugs, Peet's Coffee & Tea, McDonald's) and regional retailers (e.g. Farmer Joe's Marketplace) are mingled with locally-owned retail outlets and mom-and-pop restaurants including La Farine, a French bakery. Major national banks, a U.S. post office and a branch of the Oakland Public Library are also located in the district. Dimond has excellent freeway access and visibility from Interstate 580.

Dimond Center

Dimond Center is a shopping mall in Anchorage, Alaska, United States. At 728,000 ft² (67,000 m²), it is the largest mall in the state of Alaska^[1]. It is located at the intersection of East Dimond Boulevard and the Old Seward Highway.

The mall is anchored by Best Buy, Old Navy, and Gottschalks, and contains over 200 stores, restaurants, and offices, the latter located in a six-story office tower. Other facilities include the Samson-Dimond Branch Library, the Regal Dimond 9 Cinemas, and a lower level containing a small food court, a bowling alley, and an athletic club, arrayed around an ice skating rink. The 109-room Dimond Center Hotel is also located on the premises.

Formation in cratons

The conditions for diamond formation to happen in the lithospheric mantle occur at considerable depth corresponding to the aforementioned requirements of temperature and pressure. These depths are estimated to be in between 140–190 kilometers (90–120 miles)^[11][20] though occasionally diamonds have crystallized at depths of 300-400 km (180-250 miles) as well.^[21] The rate at which temperature changes with increasing depth into the Earth varies greatly in different parts of the Earth. In particular, under oceanic plates the temperature rises more quickly with depth, beyond the range required for diamond formation at the depth required.^[20] The correct combination of temperature and pressure is only found in the thick, ancient, and stable parts of continental plates where regions of lithosphere known as cratons exist.^[20] Long residence in the cratonic lithosphere allows diamond crystals to grow larger.

Through studies of carbon isotope ratios (similar to the methodology used in carbon dating, except with the stable isotopes C-12 and C-13), it has been shown that the carbon found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known as harzburgitic, are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth's mantle. In contrast, eclogitic diamonds contain organic carbon from organic detritus that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's crust through subduction (see plate tectonics) before transforming into diamond.^[11] These two different source carbons have measurably different ¹³C:¹²C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the Earth's surface are generally quite old, ranging from under 1 billion to 3.3 billion years old. This is 22% to 73% of the age of the Earth.

Diamonds occur most often as euhedral or rounded octahedra and twinned octahedra known as macles or maccles. As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many facets that belong to a cube, octahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, tetrakis hexahedron or disdyakis dodecahedron. The crystals can have rounded off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Sometimes they are found grown together or form double "twinned" crystals at the surfaces of the octahedron. These different shapes and habits of the diamonds result from differing external circumstances. Diamonds (especially those with rounded crystal faces) are commonly found coated in nyf, an opaque gum-like skin

Medicine

• In medieval times, gold was often seen as beneficial for the health, in the belief that something that rare and beautiful could not be anything but healthy.^{[citation needed]} Even some modern esotericists and forms of alternative medicine assign metallic gold a healing power.^{[citation needed]} Some gold salts do have anti-inflammatory properties and are used as pharmaceuticals in the treatment of arthritis and other similar conditions. However, only salts and radioisotopes of gold are of pharmacological value, as elemental (metallic) gold is inert to all chemicals it encounters inside the body.^{[citation needed]}
• In modern times injectable gold has been proven to help to reduce the pain and swelling of rheumatoid arthritis.^[5]
• Dentistry. Gold alloys are used in restorative dentistry, especially in tooth restorations, such as crowns and permanent bridges. The gold alloys' slight malleability facilitates the creation of a superior molar mating surface with other teeth and produces results that are generally more satisfactory than those produced by the creation of porcelain crowns. The use of gold crowns in more prominent teeth such as incisors is favored in some cultures and discouraged in others.
• Colloidal gold (colloidal sols of gold nanoparticles) in water are intensely red-colored, and can be made with tightly-controlled particle sizes up to a few tens of nm across by reduction of gold chloride with citrate or ascorbate ions. Colloidal gold is used in research applications in medicine, biology and materials science. The technique of immunogold labeling exploits the ability of the gold particles to adsorb protein molecules onto their surfaces. Colloidal gold particles coated with specific antibodies can be used as probes for the presence and position of antigens on the surfaces of cells (Faulk and Taylor 1979). In ultrathin sections of tissues viewed by electron microscopy, the immunogold labels appear as extremely dense round spots at the position of the antigen (Roth et al. 1980). Colloidal gold is also the form of gold used as gold paint on ceramics prior to firing.
• Gold, or alloys of gold and palladium, are applied as conductive coating to biological specimens and other non-conducting materials such as plastics and glass to be viewed in a scanning electron microscope. The coating, which is usually applied by sputtering with an argon plasma, has a triple role in this application. Gold's very high electrical conductivity drains electrical charge to earth, and its very high density provides stopping power for electrons in the SEM's electron beam, helping to limit the depth to which the electron beam penetrates the specimen. This improves definition of the position and topography of the specimen surface and increases the spatial resolution of the image. Gold also produces a high output of secondary electrons when irradiated by an electron beam, and these low-energy electrons are the most commonly-used signal source used in the scanning electron microscope.
• The isotope gold-198, (half-life: 2.7 days) is used in some cancer treatments and for treating other disease

Jewelry

Because of the softness of pure (24k) gold, it is usually alloyed with base metals for use in jewelry, altering its hardness and ductility, melting point, color and other properties. Alloys with lower caratage, typically 22k, 18k, 14k or 10k, contain higher percentages of copper, or other base metals or silver or palladium in the alloy. Copper is the most commonly used base metal, yielding a redder color. Eighteen carat gold containing 25% copper is found in antique and Russian jewellery and has a distinct, though not dominant, copper cast, creating rose gold. Fourteen carat gold-copper alloy is nearly identical in color to certain bronze alloys, and both may be used to produce police, as well as other, badges. Blue gold can be made by alloying with iron and purple gold can be made by alloying with aluminium, although rarely done except in specialized jewelry. Blue gold is more brittle and therefore more difficult to work with when making jewelry. Fourteen and eighteen carat gold alloys with silver alone appear greenish-yellow and are referred to as green gold. White gold alloys can be made with palladium or nickel. White 18 carat gold containing 17.3% nickel, 5.5% zinc and 2.2% copper is silver in appearance. Nickel is toxic, however, and its release from nickel white gold is controlled by legislation in Europe. Alternative white gold alloys are available based on palladium, silver and other white metals (World Gold Council), but the palladium alloys are more expensive than those using nickel. High-carat white gold alloys are far more resistant to corrosion than are either pure silver or sterling silver. The Japanese craft of Mokume-gane exploits the color contrasts between laminated colored gold alloys to produce decorative wood-grain effects

Medium of monetary exchange

In various countries, gold was used as a standard for monetary exchange, but this practice has been abandoned with the rise of fiat currency. The last country to back their money with gold was Switzerland, which backed 40% of its value until it joined the International Monetary Fund in 1999.^[4] Pure gold is too soft for ordinary use and is typically hardened by alloying with copper or other base metals. The gold content of gold alloys is measured in carats (k), pure gold being designated as 24k

Gold

Gold (pronounced /ˈɡoʊld/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (Latin: aurum) and atomic number 79. It is a highly sought-after precious metal in jewelry, in sculpture, and for ornamentation since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile pure metal known. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without rusting in air or water. It is one of the coinage metals and formed the basis for the gold standard used before the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971.

Modern industrial uses include dentistry and electronics, where gold has traditionally found use because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion. Chemically, gold is a transition metal and can form trivalent and univalent cations upon solvation. At STP it is attacked by aqua regia (a mixture of acids), forming chloroauric acid and by alkaline solutions of cyanide but not by single acids such as hydrochloric, nitric or sulfuric acids. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but does not react with it. Gold is insoluble in nitric acid, which will dissolve silver and base metals, and is the basis of the gold refining technique known as "inquartation and parting". Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of gold in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test", referring to a gold standard test for genuine value

Characteristics

Electron shell diagram of gold.

Gold is the most malleable and ductile of all metals; a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of one square meter, or an ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be beaten thin enough to become translucent. The transmitted light appears greenish blue, because gold strongly reflects yellow and red.

Gold readily creates alloys with many other metals. These alloys can be produced to modify the hardness and other metallurgical properties, to control melting point or to create exotic colors (see below). Gold is a good conductor of heat and electricity and reflects infra red radiation strongly. Chemically, it is unaffected by air, moisture and most corrosive reagents, and is therefore well-suited for use in coins and jewelry and as a protective coating on other, more reactive, metals. However, it is not chemically inert. Free halogens will react with gold, and aqua regia dissolves it via formation of chlorine gas which attacks gold to form the chloraurate ion. Gold also dissolves in alkaline solutions of potassium cyanide and in mercury, forming a gold-mercury amalgam.

Common oxidation states of gold include +1 (gold(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (gold(III) or auric compounds). Gold ions in solution are readily reduced and precipitated out as gold metal by adding any other metal as the reducing agent. The added metal is oxidized and dissolves allowing the gold to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.

High quality pure metallic gold is tasteless; in keeping with its resistance to corrosion (it is metal ions which confer taste to metals).

In addition, gold is very dense, a cubic meter weighing 19300 kg. By comparison, the density of lead is 11340 kg/m³, and that of the densest element, osmium, is 22610 kg/m³.

Gold

This article is about the metal. For the color, see Gold (color). For other uses, see Gold (disambiguation).

79 platinum ← gold → mercury Ag ↑ Au ↓ Rg Periodic Table - Extended Periodic Table
General
Name, Symbol, Number	gold, Au, 79
Element category	transition metals
Group, Period, Block	11, 6, d
Appearance	metallic yellow
Standard atomic weight	196.966569(4)  g·mol−1
Electron configuration	[Xe] 4f14 5d10 6s1
Electrons per shell	2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1
Physical properties
Phase	solid
Density (near r.t.)	19.3  g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p.	17.31  g·cm−3
Melting point	1337.33 K (1064.18 °C, 1947.52 °F)
Boiling point	3129 K (2856 °C, 5173 °F)
Heat of fusion	12.55  kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization	324  kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity	(25 °C) 25.418  J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure P(Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k at T(K) 1646 1814 2021 2281 2620 3078
Atomic properties
Crystal structure	cubic face centered
Oxidation states	−1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity	2.54 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies	1st: 890.1 kJ/mol
	2nd: 1980 kJ/mol
Atomic radius	135  pm
Atomic radius (calc.)	174  pm
Covalent radius	144  pm
Van der Waals radius	166 pm
Miscellaneous
Magnetic ordering	diamagnetic
Electrical resistivity	(20 °C) 22.14 n Ω·m
Thermal conductivity	(300 K) 318  W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion	(25 °C) 14.2  µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod)	(r.t.) (hard-drawn) 2030  m·s−1
Young's modulus	78  GPa
Tensile strain	0.00157
Shear modulus	27  GPa
Bulk modulus	180  GPa
Poisson ratio	0.44
Mohs hardness	2.5
Vickers hardness	216  MPa
Brinell hardness	? 2450  MPa
CAS registry number	7440-57-5
Most-stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of gold iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP 195Au syn 186.10 d ε 0.227 195Pt 196Au syn 6.183 d ε 1.506 196Pt β- 0.686 196Hg 197Au 100% 197Au is stable with 118 neutrons 198Au syn 2.69517 d β- 1.372 198Hg 199Au syn 3.169 d β- 0.453 199Hg
References

Gold (pronounced /ˈɡoʊld/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (Latin: aurum) and atomic number 79. It is a highly sought-after precious metal in jewelry, in sculpture, and for ornamentation since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile pure metal known. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without rusting in air or water. It is one of the coinage metals and formed the basis for the gold standard used before the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971.

Modern industrial uses include dentistry and electronics, where gold has traditionally found use because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion. Chemically, gold is a transition metal and can form trivalent and univalent cations upon solvation. At STP it is attacked by aqua regia (a mixture of acids), forming chloroauric acid and by alkaline solutions of cyanide but not by single acids such as hydrochloric, nitric or sulfuric acids. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but does not react with it. Gold is insoluble in nitric acid, which will dissolve silver and base metals, and is the basis of the gold refining technique known as "inquartation and parting". Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of gold in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test", referring to a gold standard test for genuine value

References

1. ^ jewel. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved on August 7, 2007, from the Dictionary.com website.
2. ^ Study reveals 'oldest jewellery', BBC News, June 22, 2006.
3. ^ Kunz, PhD, DSc, George Frederick (1917). Magic of Jewels and Charms. John Lippincott Co.. URL: Magic Of jewels: Chapter VII Amulets George Frederick Kunz was gemmologist for Tiffany's built the collections of banker J.P. Morgan and the American Natural History Museum in NY City. This chapter deals entirely with using jewels and gemstones in jewellery for talismanic purposes in Western Cultures. The next chapter deals with other, indigenous cultures.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Holland, J. 1999. The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia. Kingfisher books.
5. ^ Morris, Desmond. Body Guards: Protective Amulets and Charms. Element, 1999, ISBN 1-86204-572-0.
6. ^ McCreight, Tim. Jewelry: Fundamentals of Metalsmithing. Design Books International, 1997 ISBN 1-880140-29-2
7. ^ http://lgdl.gia.edu/pdfs/janse-table1.pdf
8. ^ Pliny. Natural History XXXVI, 15
9. ^ Microsoft Word - WMP 2001-2005 title.doc
10. ^ Natural Diamond: World Production, By Country And Type
11. ^ Silver Stars Collection Gemstone Glossary
12. ^ Nassau, K. (1980).Gems made by man. ISBN 0801967732
13. ^ Jewelry-Encyclopedia.com
14. ^ Pliny the Elder. The Natural History. ed. John Bostock, H.T. Riley, Book XXXIII The Natural History of Metals Online at the Perseus Project Chapter 4. Accessed July 2006
15. ^ Howard, Vicky. "A real Man's Ring: Gender and the Invention of Tradition." Journal of Social History, Summer 2003, pp 837-856.
16. ^ Yusuf al-Qaradawi. The Lawful and Prohibited in Islam (online)
17. ^ Greenbaum, Toni. "SILVER SPEAKS: TRADITIONAL JEWELRY FROM THE MIDDLE EAST". Metalsmith, Winter2004, Vol. 24, Issue 1, p.56. Greenbaum provides the explanation for the lack of historical examples; the majority of Islamic jewellery was in the form of bridal dowries, and traditionally was not handed down from generation to generation; instead, on a woman's death it was sold at the souk and recycled or sold to passers-by. Islamic jewellery from before the 19th century is thus exceedingly rare.
18. ^ ^{a b c d e} Reader's Digest Association. 1986. The last 2 million years. Reader's Digest. ISBN 0-86438-007-0
19. ^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 155–157.
20. ^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 295–297.
21. ^ Nemet-Nejat, Daily Life, 297.
22. ^ Treister, Mikhail YU. "Polychrome Necklaces from the Late Hellenistic Period." Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 2004, Vol. 10 Issue 3/4, p199-257, 59p.
23. ^ Duby Georges and Philippe Ariès, eds. A History of Private Life Vol 1 - From Pagan Rome to Byzantium. Harvard, 1987. p 506
24. ^ Duby, throughout.
25. ^ Sherrard, P. 1972. Great Ages of Man: Byzantium. Time-Life International.
26. ^ Scarisbrick, Diana. Rings: Symbols of Wealth, Power, and Affection. New York: Abrams, 1993. ISBN 0-8109-3775-1 p77.
27. ^ ^{a b} Farndon, J. 2001. 1,000 Facts on Modern History. Miles Kelly Publishing.
28. ^ Ilse-Neuman, Ursula. Book review “Schmuck/Jewellery 1840-1940: Highlights from the Schmuckmuseum Pforzheim.’’ ‘’Metalsmith’’. Fall2006, Vol. 26 Issue 3, p12-13, 2p
29. ^ Constantino, Maria. Art Nouveau. Knickerbocker Press; 1999 ISBN 1-57715-074-0 as well as Ilse-Neuman 2006.
30. ^ Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewellery of India. New York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0-8109-3886-3. p15.
31. ^ Lu, Peter J., "Early Precision Compound Machine from Ancient China." Science, 6/11/2004, Vol. 304, Issue 5677
32. ^ ^{a b c} Reader's Digest Association. 1983. Vanished Civilisations. Reader's Digest.
33. ^ Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewellery of India. New York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0-8109-3886-3. p15.
34. ^ Larco Hoyle, Rafael (2008). Museo Larco. Experience Ancient Peru. Lima: Museo Larco. ISBN 978-9972-9341-2-4.
35. ^ Josephy Jr, A.M. 1994. 500 Nations: The Illustrated History of North American Indians. Alfred A. Knopf. Inc.
36. ^ ^{a b} Neich, R., Pereira, F. 2004. Pacific Jewellery and Adornment. David Bateman & Auckland Museum. ISBN 1-86953-535-9.
37. ^ Dorling Kindersley Ltd. 1989. Facts and Fallacies: Stories of the Strange and Unusual. Reader's Digest. 11-13.
38. ^ McCrieght, Tim. "What's New?" Metalsmith Spring 2006, Vol. 26 Issue 1, p42-45, 4p
39. ^ Nineteenth-Century American Jewelry | Thematic Essay | Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art
40. ^ ^{a b} Packard, M. 2002. Ripley's Believe it or not: Special Edition. Scholastic Inc. 22.
41. ^ Moss, Madonna L. "George Catlin among the Nayas: Understanding the practice of labret wearing on the Northwest Coast." Ethnohistory Winter99, Vol. 46 Issue 1, p31, 35p.
42. ^ KPMG India (2007). "Global Jewelry Consumption". Gems and Gemology (GIA) XLIII (Summer 2007):

Jewellery market

According to a recent KPMG study^[42] the largest jewellery market is the United States with a market share of 30.8%, Japan, India and China and the Middle East each with 8 - 9% and finally Italy with 5%. The authors of the study predict a dramatic change in market shares by 2015, where the market share of the United States will have dropped to around 25%, and China and India will increase theirs to over 13%. The Middle East will remain more or less constant at 9%, whereas Europe's and Japan's marketshare will be halved and become less than 4% for Japan, and less than 3% for the biggest individual European countries: Italy and the UK

Body modification

Young girl from the Padaung tribe.

Jewellery used in body modification is usually plain; the use of simple silver studs, rings and earrings predominates. Common jewellery pieces such as earrings, are themselves a form of body modification, as they are accommodated by creating a small hole in the ear.

Padaung women in Myanmar place large golden rings around their necks. From as early as 5 years old, girls are introduced to their first neck ring. Over the years, more rings are added. In addition to the twenty-plus pounds of rings on her neck, a woman will also wear just as many rings on her calves too. At their extent, some necks modified like this can reach 10-15 inches long; the practice has obvious health impacts, however, and has in recent years declined from cultural norm to tourist curiosity.^[40] Tribes related to the Paduang, as well as other cultures throughout the world, use jewellery to stretch their earlobes, or enlarge ear piercings. In the Americas, labrets have been worn since before first contact by Innu and first nations peoples of the northwest coast.^[41] Lip plates are worn by the African Mursi and Sara people, as well as some South American peoples.

In the late 20th century, the influence of modern primitivism led to many of these practices being incorporated into western subcultures. Many of these practices rely on a combination of body modification and decorative objects; thus keeping the distinction between these two types of decoration blurred.

In many cultures, jewellery is used as a temporary body modifier, with in some cases, hooks or even objects as large as bike bars being placed into the recipient's skin. Although this procedure is often carried out by tribal or semi-tribal groups, often acting under a trance during religious ceremonies, this practise has seeped into western culture. Many extreme-jewellery shops now cater to people wanting large hooks or spikes set into their skin. Most often, these hooks are used in conjunction with pulleys to hoist the recipient into the air. This practise is said to give an erotic feeling to the person and some couples have even performed their marriage ceremony whilst being suspended by hooks

Modern

Reversible pendant mimics the constellations representing a star map of the zodiac signs.

The modern jewellery movement began in the late 1940s at the end of World War II with a renewed interest in artistic and leisurely pursuits. The movement is most noted with works by Georg Jensen and other jewellery designers who advanced the concept of wearable art. The advent of new materials, such as plastics, Precious Metal Clay (PMC) and colouring techniques, has led to increased variety in styles. Other advances, such as the development of improved pearl harvesting by people such as Kokichi Mikimoto and the development of improved quality artificial gemstones such as moissanite (a diamond simulant), has placed jewellery within the economic grasp of a much larger segment of the population.

The "jewellery as art" movement was spearheaded by artisans such as Robert Lee Morris and continued by designers such as Gill Forsbrook in the UK. Influence from other cultural forms is also evident; one example of this is bling-bling style jewellery, popularized by hip-hop and rap artists in the early 21st century.

The late 20th century saw the blending of European design with oriental techniques such as Mokume-gane. The following are innovations in the decades stradling the year 2000: "Mokume-gane, hydraulic die forming, anti-clastic raising, fold-forming, reactive metal anodizing, shell forms, PMC, photoetching, and [use of] CAD/CAM

Pacific

Jewellery making in the Pacific started later than in other areas because of recent human settlement. Early Pacific jewellery was made of bone, wood and other natural materials, and thus has not survived. Most Pacific jewellery is worn above the waist, with headdresses, necklaces, hair pins and arm and waist belts being the most common pieces.

Jewellery in the Pacific, with the exception of Australia, is worn to be a symbol of either fertility or power. Elaborate headdresses are worn by many Pacific cultures and some, such as the inhabitants of Papua New Guinea, wear certain headresses once they have killed an enemy. Tribesman may wear boar bones through their noses.

Island jewellery is still very much primal because of the lack of communication with outside cultures; some areas of Borneo and Papua New Guinea are yet to be explored by Western nations. However, the island nations which were flooded with Western missionaries have had drastic changes made to their jewellery designs. Missionaries saw any type of tribal jewellery as a sign of the wearer's devotion to paganism. Thus many tribal designs were lost forever in the mass conversion to Christianity.^[36]

A modern opal bracelet

Australia is now the number one supplier of opals in the world. Opals had already been mined in Europe and South America for many years prior, but in the late 1800s, the Australian opal market became predominant. Australian opals are only mined in a few select places around the country, making it one the most profitable stones in the Pacific.^[37]

One of the few cultures to today still create their jewellery as they did many centuries prior is the New Zealand Māori, who create Hei-tiki. The reason the hei-tiki is worn is not apparent; it may either relate to ancestral connections, as Tiki was the first Māori, or fertility, as there is a strong connection between this and Tiki. Another suggestion from historians is that the Tiki is a product of the ancient belief of a god named Tiki, perhaps dating back to before the Māoris settled in New Zealand. Hei-tikis are traditionally carved by hand from bone (commonly whale), nephrite or bowenite; a lengthy and spiritual process. The Hei-tiki is now popular amongst tourists who can buy it from souvenir or jeweller shops